How to make a cheeseburger

Driving through the countryside in Australia, you tend to see a lot of cows grazing in bright green fields. It’s quite a peaceful scene. When I was young, I thought that the beef and dairy products that I consumed all came from these cows. I believed that consuming dairy products didn’t harm cows, as there is no need to kill a cow in order to milk them. I also thought that cows always produce milk, and that we were just consuming a by-product. I really loved dairy. I used to eat grilled cheese sandwiches almost every day. When I first became a vegetarian, I didn’t understand why vegans avoided dairy products. Many people besides me seem to love dairy products and beef too. In fact, in 2021, the world slaughtered 330 million cows, produced 72 million tons of beef, and produced 9.2 tons of milk. Every year, the world produces and consumes more and more dairy and beef.1

In this post, I will tell you how a cheeseburger is made. However, I will not describe how to put sauce or pickles on a toasted sesame seed bun. Instead I will describe in detail the most important process, which is how we use cows to produce beef and dairy products. Before reading on, I want to provide some caution. In the following sections, I will describe some violent and cruel processes and show some related pictures. So you may feel some uncomfortable emotions from seeing this content. Parents should decide whether to allow their children to read on. However, if we want to make an informed choice about whether to consume beef and dairy, learning about how these products get to our plates is an important first step.


Artificial insemination

Cows, like humans, do not produce milk unless they are pregnant or have recently given birth. Farmers artificially impregnate cows repeatedly, starting from around two years old. Like humans, the gestation period for cows is about nine months.2 Farmers firstly extract semen from a bull. One common method is to restrain the bull and masturbate them for up to one minute. Then an electric probe is inserted into the bull’s anus. The stockperson repeatedly inserts this probe into the bull’s anus while gradually increasing the voltage. This process is called electroejaculation. Sexual stimulation may seem like a pleasurable experience, but it is actually a painful and uncomfortable experience for the bull.3 Later on, a stockperson inserts one arm into the female cow’s anus to grasp the uterus, and the other arm into their vagina to inject the semen into the cervix.4 The picture below shows a cow being artificially inseminated.

A cow being artificially inseminated

A cow being artificially inseminated. Scene from Dominion.5


Dairy farm conditions

In developed countries, it is common to raise cows in factory farms. As developing countries become more developed, they also tend to raise cows more intensively. For example, in the United States, dairy cows are typically fed crops instead of being allowed to graze.6 As there are various types of intensive farms, it is difficult to accurately define what a factory farms is. Therefore, there is no official estimate of the number cows raised in factory farms. However, based on unofficial analyses based on USDA data, it was concluded that approximately 70% of cows in the United States are raised in factory farms.7,8 Animal welfare experts have evaluated that dairy cows are more likely to experience negative welfare throughout their lives than beef cattle. For example, compared to beef cattle, dairy cows are more likely to be fed a poor diet, experience discomfort, be less able to move around, become injured, develop diseases, experience pain, and experience negative emotions. Dairy cows are also less likely to be able to engage in natural social behaviours with other cows.9

Cows are milked 2-4 times a day.10 The picture below shows cows being milked automatically in a rotating milk parlor.

Dairy cows being milked automatically

Dairy cows being milked automatically. Farm Transparency Project.11

Through selective breeding, the amount of milk produced per cow has more than doubled from the 1960s to the 2000s. In the case of the dairy industry, selective breeding involves intentionally breeding cows that provide the highest milk yields. However, due to this increase in milk production, cows are faced with more health problems. For example, they are more likely to become crippled, develop metabolic disorders, develop mastitis, have a shorter lifespan and be less fertile.12,13 Therefore, by implementing selective breeding, the dairy industry has prioritised profit over the welfare of cows. Since cows are typically raised indoors and have limited mobility, they are more prone to disease.9 The picture below shows a typical shed where cows are raised. In some farms, cows are tied up all day long.14 Mastitis is a painful bacterial inflammation of the udder. Farmers try to treat mastitis with antibiotics. However, since infected cows can spread mastitis to other cows, farmers often kill infected cows.15

Dairy cow shed

Dairy cow shed. Farm Transparency Project.11

As cows age, their milk production decreases, they become less likely to conceive, or they may become too sick for a farmer to economically justify feeding and raising them.16 So farmers will either kill the cow themselves or send them to a slaughterhouse. Dairy cows are typically killed at around 5 years old, after 2-4 pregnancy cycles.9 In comparison, the natural lifespan of a cow is actually around 20 years.16 A lot of the beef comes from the dairy industry. For example, in 2019, 21% of the beef produced in the United States came from the dairy industry.17 Beef from dairy cows is typically used in processed foods such as ground beef, hamburgers, sausages, or pet food.


Separating the mother and calf

Farmers typically separate calves from their mothers a few hours after they are born. Farmers cannot economically justify allowing calves to drink milk that could be sold to humans. Instead, calves are fed milk substitutes, wasted milk or colostrum. The longer cows and calves spend time together and form a bond, the more stress they experience when separated. However, even in this short period, they can still form a bond.18 Cows have maternal instincts and want to care for their calves.19 After being separated, dairy cows often make distressed calling sounds for a long time. In the picture below, you can see a farmer separating a calf from its mother. The mother tried to chase the calf inside the trailer.

Separation of mother and calf

Separation of mother and calf. Scene from Dominion.5

In this case, early separation may seem like the best option. However, separating the more and calf is still stressful, even if we try to minimise it. Moreover, we have artificially created the need to separate the mother and calf, due to of our appetites for dairy products. The best case scenario for a cow and a calf is to live together until the calf naturally weans off of the mother’s milk at around 6-8 months old.18 In situations where a mother is allowed to raise their calf, the calf is less likely to develop social, developmental and psychological problems. Additionally, when calves consume their mother’s milk, the likelihood of the mother developing mastitis is reduced.9,20 Another consideration is that early separation reduces the likelihood of cows spreading infections such as Johne’s disease to their calves.18,20 Farmers do not want dieases to spread to calves, as they want to use them later for profit. In factory farms, the cow’s udders, feed and water can be more easily contaminated by manure, and hence disease spreads more easily. If the cows lived in pasture, this would be less of a problem. So once more, we have artificially created the need for separation of the mother and calf.


Calves

Male calves are considered useless to the dairy industry, because they cannot produce milk in the future. Dairy cows have been selectively bred to optimise milk production rather than meat production. Therefore, farmers often find it uneconomical to raise, feed, or sell these male calves for meat.21 Instead, many male calves are sent to the slaughterhouse as early as 5 days after birth.9,20 Alternatively, calves may be killed on the farm itself. Farmers often use a captive bolt gun or shotgun to kill the calves.22 Some male calves are sold to the veal or beef industry. Typically, these calves are confined to individual stalls for several weeks and fed on milk substitutes or replacers.20 They are usually isolated from other cows in these stalls.9

To prevent accidental injury to other animals or people, before the calf is two months old, its horns are removed chemically, with a knife or with a hot iron. This process is referred to as disbudding, and is painful.20 Disbudding is claimed to be for animal welfare, however, once more we have created an environment where this process is necessary. If we did not confine animals in narrow spaces, we would not need to do this.

Male calves can also be castrated with a knife or rubber band. The rubber band is used to block the blood flowing to the testicles, causing them to eventually rot and fall off. This is particularly painful when done without anesthesia.20 Cows are branded with hot irons and their ears are cut to indicate their identity.23 Furthermore, some farm workers twist the tails of cows and hit them to force them into another area. As a result, cows can become fearful of humans.24 Although such practices are illegal in several countries, they still do occur.

The two main types of veal are white and rose. White veal is considered more valuable because of its flavour and texture. To produce white veal, calves are raised in small stalls during their short lifespans. They are not allowed to move around and fed a diet that is deficient in iron. This practice is illegal in Australia and Europe, but common in other countries. Calves are slaughtered at 6-8 months old for veal and at 1 year for beef.20 Sexed semen technology can be used to reduce the number of male calves born into the dairy industry. However, this this not a widely used method.25 Like their mothers, female calves are used to produce milk and will eventually be killed.

Isolated female calf

Isolated female calf. Farm Transparency Project.11


Slaughterhouse

Similar to pigs, as cows are transported to the slaughterhouse, they are often forced to endure injuries, high and low temperatures, hunger, thirst, fatigue, stress, fear, and even death. If not properly managed, these risks can lead to poor conditions for the welfare of the cows.22,26 The image below shows cows that have been crowded onto a truck for transportation.

Cows being transported to the slaughterhouse in crowded truck

Cows being transported to the slaughterhouse in crowded truck. Farm Transparency Project.11

Workers guide the cows through the abbatoir. If the cows do not follow the workers directions, they are sometimes poked with an electric prod.27 Before slaughter, cows are stunned. The cows are mechanically restrained28 and slaughter worker fires a captive bolt gun on top of the cows forehead. If done correctly, the bolt passes through the cow’s skull and stuns their brain. However, if the slaughter worker does not stun the cow accurately, they may have to shoot the cow multiple times, which is painful. It is more difficult to accurately stun bulls and calves, and hence there is a higher probability of stunning them incorrectly. The images below shows cows and calves being stunned.

Calf being stunned with a captive bolt gun
Dairy cow being stunned with a captive bolt gun

Calves and cows being stunned electrically or a captive bolt gun. Scenes from Dominion.5

After stunning, the slaughter worker attaches a chain the hind legs of the cow. The cow is suspended in the air, and the slaughter worker cuts their neck and chest with a knife. If a cow is not cut quickly enough after stunning, they can regain consciousness and consciously experience the slaughter.28,29 Even though we are able to stun a relatively high percentage of cows effectively, because we slaughter so many cows, many still endure this process consciously. The cow’s skin is then removed to make leather, and the cow’s body is cut and processed into our favourite foods. The images below shows the slaughter process.

Cows and calves after throat cutting, cows bleeding out and cows with their skin removed. Scenes from Dominion5 and the Farm Transparency Project11.

In Europe, 3% of slaughtered dairy cows are in their last stage of pregnancy.30 Researchers in the field of biology often use foetal bovine serum for cell culture or other purposes. Slaughter workers extract foetal bovine serum by slaughtering pregnant cows and removing the live foetus from the mother. They then puncture the foetus’s heart or umbilical cord with a needle to extract the blood. The foetus dies during this process. The image below shows the extraction process. Foetal bovine serum extraction is typically performed without anaesthesia or stunning. Based on our current knowledge, it is most likely that calf foetuses in their last stage of pregnancy cannot feel pain and are unconscious. However, there is still some uncertainty and there is a chance that they may feel pain.30 Foetal bovine serum comes from unique animals, so the chemical composition of each batch may vary. Therefore, researchers may obtain inconsistent results when using foetal bovine serum.31 Fortunately, alternatives to foetal bovine serum are being developed.32

Extracting foetal bovine serum from a calf foetus

Extracting foetal bovine serum from a calf foetus. Scene from Dominion.5


Beef cattle

The cattle raised for meat are not the same breed as dairy cows. Beef cattle are optimised through selective breeding, to increase the yield of meat per cow. Many of the processes involved in raising dairy cows and beef cattle are similar, such as artificial insemination, electroejaculation, stunning, and slaughter. In some countries, if there is enough pasture land available, cattle are allowed to graze for about the first 10 months of life. To increase the growth rate, the cows are then sent to factory farms or feedlots for about 8 months, where they are fed crops.33  Cattle are typically slaughtered between the ages of 1-3 years old.9

Beef cattle feedlot

Beef cattle feedlot. Farm Transparency Project.11


Conclusion and reflection

If we didn’t milk dairy cows, would they experience pain and develop health issues? Yes. However, if we had not artificially inseminated these cows or separated them from their calves, there would be no need to milk them. We have created this problem. Continuously milking cows is just a short-term solution. So, would dairy products be ethical if we did not separate calves from their mothers or kill them? In theory, it is possible to raise cows and milk them without any pain, death, or suffering. However, it is not realistic or economically feasible. To provide a sufficient quantity of affordable dairy products, there will always be a need to artificially inseminate cows. Calves need to be separated from their mothers to prevent them from drinking milk that can be sold to us. To lower the price of dairy products, it is necessary to sell the meat and leather from dairy cows. Therefore, when we purchase dairy products, we indirectly support the slaughter of cows.

There are also free-range farms where cows are allowed to graze, which is better for the their welfare. However, even in this ideal case, the cows still experience separation, stunning, and slaughter. Additionally, as I will explain in more detail in a later post, it is not possible to supply the world’s demand for dairy and beef from free-range farms alone. Simply put, there is not enough land available.34

Some people avoid eating veal for ethical reasons. However, consuming dairy products indirectly supports the veal industry. Because calves appear young, some may consider it unethical to slaughter them. As previously mentioned, veal calves are typically slaughtered at 6-8 months old.20 However, the majority of pigs we consume are slaughtered at 5-6 months old 35 and the majority of chickens we consume are slaughtered at 6-8 weeks old.36 Because pigs and chickens appear older, despite actually being quite young, consuming them may be considered less unethical than consuming veal. Nevertheless, pigs and chickens are also subject to exploitation, just like veal calves.

Although I described these processes in writing, we cannot truly understand them until we see them with our own eyes. The documentary Dominion shows the process of raising and slaughtering animals, mostly in Australia. From the 53-66 minute marks, the documentary shows what a cow experiences, and is available for free on YouTube. While this documentary shows some extreme examples, in general it shows common processes. You may feel a bit uncomfortable while watching these scenes, but if we want to make an informed decision about eating dairy or beef, then the least we can do is witness how they are produced.

Reflecting on our actions, values, thoughts, and emotions is important. When we think of how a cheeseburger is made, we probably never think about the cow’s experience that led to the cheese and meat patty. How did you feel while reading or watching this kind of content? Why did you feel that way? Did you already know about these processes, or were you surprised? How would we feel if we raised and slaughtered our pets in this way? How would we feel if we were in their situation? Of course, humans and cows are different, but cows have intelligence, can suffer, can experience complex emotions, can learn, have individual personalities, and interact socially with other cows.37 At this moment, while reading this sentence, cows and calves are going through this. Every time we buy dairy products or beef, we are voting with our money for cows have these experiences. Can we justify consuming dairy and beef if we have the opportunity to live without them? Is it fair that that cows are forced to experience this, because we want to mix milk into our coffee or eat cheese on top of our spagghetti?

How do you feel about drinking milk from other species such as mice, elephants, monkeys, dogs, cats, or pigs? How do you feel about adults continuing to drink human breast milk? We receive messages from marketing and society that we need cow’s milk for growth, strong bones, and muscles. Overall, consuming appropriate amounts of dairy products can be healthy, and provides many important nutrients.38 However, these nutrients can also be obtained from many plant-based foods. For example, nowadays many varieties of soy milk contain a similar amount of protein calcium as dairy milk.39 Don’t like soy milk? There is also oat milk, almond milk and a range of other milk substitutes. Additionally, broccoli, kale, and tofu are good sources of calcium.38 These days, there are many plant-based cheeses, yogurts, and meat alternatives available. There are tasty alternatives as well as not-so-tasty ones. There are unhealthy alternatives as well as healthy ones. There are expensive substitutes and there are cheap substitutes. Depending on our individual desires and goals, we can find alternatives that suit us. I will discuss plant-based nutrition more detail in future posts. Of course, the decision to consume dairy and beef depend on multiple factors outside of animal welfare, such as environmental, economic, psychological, and cultural considerations. I will discuss these topics in future posts. You can view my other posts to learn about how how pigs become pork or how chicken and eggs are produced.


References

1.            Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). FAOSTAT: Crops and livestock products. 2023; https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.
2.            Hansen L, Freeman A, Berger P. Variances, repeatabilities, and age adjustments of yield and fertility in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science. 1983;66(2):281-292.
3.            Palmer CW. Welfare aspects of theriogenology: Investigating alternatives to electroejaculation of bulls. Theriogenology. 2005;64(3):469-479.
4.            Thomas J, Andersen C. Artificial Insemination of Cattle Step by Step. 2019; https://extension.missouri.edu/media/wysiwyg/Extensiondata/Pub/pdf/agguides/ansci/g02019.pdf.
5.            Farm Transparency Project. Dominion. 2018; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQRAfJyEsko.
6.            Kurtz JE, Woodbury PB, Ahmed ZU, Peters CJ. Mapping US food system localization potential: The impact of diet on foodsheds. Environmental Science & Technology. 2020;54(19):12434-12446.
7.            Anthis JR. US Factory Farming Estimates. 2019; https://www.sentienceinstitute.org/us-factory-farming-estimates.
8.            United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Census of Agriculture. 2017; https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Full_Report/Volume_1,_Chapter_1_US/usv1.pdf.
9.            Mandel R, Bracke MB, Nicol CJ, Webster JA, Gygax L. Dairy vs beef production–expert views on welfare of cattle in common food production systems. Animal. 2022;16(9):100622.
10.         Vijayakumar M, Park JH, Ki KS, et al. The effect of lactation number, stage, length, and milking frequency on milk yield in Korean Holstein dairy cows using automatic milking system. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2017;30(8):1093-1098.
11.         Farm Transparency Project. 2023; https://www.farmtransparency.org/.
12.         Oltenacu PA, Algers B. Selection for increased production and the welfare of dairy cows: are new breeding goals needed? AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2005;34(4):311-315.
13.         Oltenacu PA, Broom DM. The impact of genetic selection for increased milk yield on the welfare of dairy cows. Animal welfare. 2010;19(S1):39-49.
14.         Robbins JA, Roberts C, Weary DM, Franks B, Von Keyserlingk MAG. Factors influencing public support for dairy tie stall housing in the U.S. PLOS ONE. 2019;14(5):e0216544.
15.         Cobirka M, Tancin V, Slama P. Epidemiology and classification of mastitis. Animals. 2020;10(12):2212.
16.         De Vries A, Marcondes M. Overview of factors affecting productive lifespan of dairy cows. Animal. 2020;14(S1):s155-s164.
17.         Moreira LC, Rosa GJM, Schaefer DM. Beef production from cull dairy cows: a review from culling to consumption. Journal of animal science. 2021;99(7).
18.         Flower FC, Weary DM. Effects of early separation on the dairy cow and calf: 2. Separation at 1 day and 2 weeks after birth. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2001;70(4):275-284.
19.         Schutz MM, Pajor EA. Genetic Control of Dairy Cattle Behavior. Journal of Dairy Science. 2001;84:E31-E38.
20.         Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA). RSPCA Approved Farming Scheme Information Notes: Dairy Calves. 2021.
21.         Skelhorn E, Garcia-Ara A, Nova R, Kinston H, Wapenaar W. Public opinion and perception of rosé veal in the UK. Meat science. 2020;167:108032.
22.         Gregory N. Animal welfare at markets and during transport and slaughter. Meat science. 2008;80(1):2-11.
23.         Petherick JC. Animal welfare issues associated with extensive livestock production: The northern Australian beef cattle industry. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2005;92(3):211-234.
24.         Destrez A, Haslin E, Boivin X. What stockperson behavior during weighing reveals about the relationship between humans and suckling beef cattle: A preliminary study. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2018;209:8-13.
25.         Holden SA, Butler ST. Review: Applications and benefits of sexed semen in dairy and beef herds. Animal. 2018;12(s1):s97-s103.
26.         Fisher AD, Colditz IG, Lee C, Ferguson DM. The influence of land transport on animal welfare in extensive farming systems. Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 2009;4(4):157-162.
27.         Huertas S, Gil A, Piaggio J, Van Eerdenburg F. Transportation of beef cattle to slaughterhouses and how this relates to animal welfare and carcase bruising in an extensive production system. Animal welfare. 2010;19(3):281-285.
28.         Grandin T. The feasibility of using vocalization scoring as an indicator of poor welfare during cattle slaughter. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 1998;56(2-4):121-128.
29.         Atkinson S, Velarde A, Algers B. Assessment of stun quality at commercial slaughter in cattle shot with captive bolt. Animal Welfare. 2013;22(4):473-481.
30.         More S, Bicout D, Botner A, et al. Scientific Opinion on the animal welfare aspects in respect of the slaughter or killing of pregnant livestock animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses). EFSA Journal. 2017;15(5):96.
31.         Jochems CE, van der Valk JB, Stafleu FR, Baumans V. The use of fetal bovine serum: ethical or scientific problem? Alternatives to laboratory animals : ATLA. 2002;30(2):219-227.
32.         Chelladurai KS, Christyraj JDS, Rajagopalan K, et al. Alternative to FBS in animal cell culture-An overview and future perspective. Heliyon. 2021;7(8):e07686.
33.         Hayek MN, Garrett RD. Nationwide shift to grass-fed beef requires larger cattle population. Environmental Research Letters. 2018;13(8):084005.
34.         Garnett T, Godde C, Muller A, et al. Grazed and confused?: Ruminating on cattle, grazing systems, methane, nitrous oxide, the soil carbon sequestration question-and what it all means for greenhouse gas emissions. Food Climate Research Network (FCRN);2017.
35.         Australian Pork. Stages of pork production. 2023; https://australianpork.com.au/about-pig-farming/stages-pork-production.
36.         Zuidhof MJ, Schneider BL, Carney VL, Korver DR, Robinson FE. Growth, efficiency, and yield of commercial broilers from 1957, 1978, and 2005. Poultry Science. 2014;93(12):2970-2982.
37.         Marino L, Allen K. The psychology of cows. Animal Behavior and Cognition. 2017;4(4):474-498.
38.         Willett WC, Ludwig DS. Milk and Health. The New England journal of medicine. 2020;382(7):644-654.
39.         Zhao Y, Martin BR, Weaver CM. Calcium bioavailability of calcium carbonate fortified soymilk is equivalent to cow’s milk in young women. The Journal of nutrition. 2005;135(10):2379-2382.

Enter your email below to stay up to date with the latest posts:

By subscribing you agree to receive emails from The Elephant On Our Plates and agree with our Privacy Statement. You can unsubscribe at any time.

Enter your email below to stay up to date with the latest posts:

By subscribing you agree to receive emails from The Elephant On Our Plates and agree with our Privacy Statement. You can unsubscribe at any time.